[155] An estimated one-quarter of the population of the world saw—either live or delayed—the Christmas Eve transmission during the ninth orbit of the Moon,[156] and an estimated one-fifth of the population of the world watched the live transmission of the Apollo 11 moonwalk. On the extended lunar missions, an orbital scientific instrument package was carried. On July 20, 1969, the astronaut Neil Armstrong was the first human to set foot on the moon. Its exterior was covered with an ablative heat shield, and had its own reaction control system (RCS) engines to control its attitude and steer its atmospheric entry path. The first three lunar missions (Apollo 8, Apollo 10, and Apollo 11) used a free return trajectory, keeping a flight path coplanar with the lunar orbit, which would allow a return to Earth in case the SM engine failed to make lunar orbit insertion. House. It was first conceived during Dwight D. Eisenhower's administration as a three-person spacecraft to follow the one-person Project Mercury, which put the first Americans in space. The crew was commanded by John Young, with Ken Mattingly and Charles Duke. Slayton was responsible for making all Gemini and Apollo crew assignments. After a rest period, the commander (CDR) and lunar module pilot (LMP) move to the LM, power up its systems, and deploy the landing gear. Phillips' superior officer Bernard A. Schriever agreed to loan Phillips to NASA, along with a staff of officers under him, on the condition that Phillips be made Apollo Program Director. [97] In the summer it had become clear that the LM would not be ready in time. But an even bigger facility would be needed for the mammoth rocket required for the crewed lunar mission, so land acquisition was started in July 1961 for a Launch Operations Center (LOC) immediately north of Canaveral at Merritt Island. Congress. [according to whom?]. Office of Management and Budget Deputy Director Caspar Weinberger was opposed to this, and persuaded Nixon to keep the remaining missions. Apollo 11's Risky Moon Landing Included 'Lumpy Gravity,' Craters and More ... the lunar module crew would perform a descent orbit insertion burn … The design, development and construction of the center was conducted by Kurt H. Debus, a member of Dr. Wernher von Braun's original V-2 rocket engineering team. Launch The three Saturn V stages burn for about 11 minutes to achieve a 100-nautical-mile (190 km) circular parking orbit. This was changed by the time human flights began. [65], Thirty-two astronauts were assigned to fly missions in the Apollo program. In over 18 hours of EVA, they collected about 77 kilograms (170 lb) of lunar material. [43], Wiesner kept up the pressure, even making the disagreement public during a two-day September visit by the President to Marshall Space Flight Center. This is a picture of the Apollo 11 landing site taken by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO). Active 1 year, 5 months ago. [47], Faget's preliminary Apollo design employed a cone-shaped command module, supported by one of several service modules providing propulsion and electrical power, sized appropriately for the space station, cislunar, and lunar landing missions. [3] It studied micrometeoroid flux, and lunar environment until May 30, 1966. The second stage replaced the S-IV with the S-IVB-200, powered by a single J-2 engine burning liquid hydrogen fuel with LOX, to produce 200,000 pounds-force (890 kN) of thrust. The most recent was the Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer (LADEE), which became a ballistic impact experiment in 2014. The Apollo program has been the focus of several works of fiction, including: This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Slayton replaced him with Chaffee. In these six spaceflights, twelve people walked on the Moon. [48], The Apollo Lunar Module (LM) was designed to descend from lunar orbit to land two astronauts on the Moon and take them back to orbit to rendezvous with the command module. MSFC designed the heavy lift-class Saturn launch vehicles, which would be required for Apollo. IL 11 **Good description of parking orbit. It consisted of separate descent and ascent stages, each with its own engine. The workshop was to be supplemented by the Apollo Telescope Mount, which could be attached to the ascent stage of the lunar module via a rack. At launch, the Lunar Module sat directly beneath the Command/Service Module (CSM) with legs folded, inside the Spacecraft-to-LM Adapter (SLA) attached to the S-IVB third stage of the Saturn V rocket. [95], Apollo 7, launched from LC-34 on October 11, 1968, was the C mission, crewed by Schirra, Eisele, and Cunningham. The cost of constructing and operating Apollo-related ground facilities, such as the NASA human spaceflight centers and the global tracking and data acquisition network, added an additional $5.2 billion ($31.9 billion adjusted). The final fiscal year of Apollo funding was 1973. [90], To remedy the causes of the fire, changes were made in the Block II spacecraft and operational procedures, the most important of which were use of a nitrogen/oxygen mixture instead of pure oxygen before and during launch, and removal of flammable cabin and space suit materials. The ascent engine was fired in abort mode, known as a "fire-in-the-hole" test, where it was lit simultaneously with jettison of the descent stage. The Blue Marble was released during a surge in environmentalism, and became a symbol of the environmental movement as a depiction of Earth's frailty, vulnerability, and isolation amid the vast expanse of space. Transposition and docking The Spacecraft Lunar Module Adapter (SLA) panels separate to free the CSM and expose the LM. All missions were commanded by Gemini or Mercury veterans. Kennedy's goal was accomplished on the Apollo 11 mission when astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin landed their Apollo Lunar Module (LM) on July 20, 1969, and walked on the lunar surface, while Michael Collins remained in lunar orbit in the command and service module (CSM), and all three landed safely on Earth on July 24. NASSP was originally developed by Jean-Luc Rocca-Serra, who released the source code to version 4.x. [57], The first four Saturn I test flights were launched from LC-34, with only the first stage live, carrying dummy upper stages filled with water. After an August 1963 qualification test flight,[55] four LES test flights (A-001 through 004) were made at the White Sands Missile Range between May 1964 and January 1966. [111], The cutbacks forced mission planners to reassess the original planned landing sites in order to achieve the most effective geological sample and data collection from the remaining four missions. [64], NASA's director of flight crew operations during the Apollo program was Donald K. "Deke" Slayton, one of the original Mercury Seven astronauts who was medically grounded in September 1962 due to a heart murmur. Phillips documented his findings in a December 19 letter to NAA president Lee Atwood, with a strongly worded letter by Mueller, and also gave a presentation of the results to Mueller and Deputy Administrator Robert Seamans. [54], The Apollo astronauts were chosen from the Project Mercury and Gemini veterans, plus from two later astronaut groups. 1_1 1-2 LEM Mission 1-1 1-2.1 Separation and Transfer Orbit Insertion. After 24 hours in lunar orbit Armstrong and Aldrin separated Eagle from Columbia, to prepare for descent to the lunar surface. Astronauts would continue to use the CSM as a ferry to the station. NASA announced the selection of Grumman as the LEM contractor in November 1962.[44]. [98][99] The decision was not announced publicly until successful completion of Apollo 7. The initial lunar flight version weighed approximately 51,300 pounds (23,300 kg) fully fueled, while a later version designed to carry a lunar orbit scientific instrument package weighed just over 54,000 pounds (24,000 kg). [1][7] [94], This was followed on April 4, 1968, by Apollo 6 (AS-502) which carried a CSM and a LM Test Article as ballast. At its peak, it employed over 400,000 employees and contractors around the country and accounted for more than half of NASA's total spending in the 1960s. First flight of Saturn IB and Block I CSM; suborbital to Atlantic Ocean; qualified heat shield to orbital reentry speed. First live television publicly broadcast from a crewed mission. On the 11th revolution, … Atmospheric drag slows the CM. [128] A geochemical component called KREEP was discovered by Apollo 12, which has no known terrestrial counterpart. [136] NASA's budget could not sustain Apollo missions which cost, on average, $445 million ($2.28 billion adjusted)[137] each while simultaneously developing the Space Shuttle. For Baidu's autonomous vehicle Apollo project, see, The most famous of the Moon rocks recovered, the, Origin and spacecraft feasibility studies, Apollo 11 broadcast data restoration project. [157], The Apollo program also affected environmental activism in the 1970s due to photos taken by the astronauts. [1] They are of particular interest in exploration of the Moon, but suffer from gravitational perturbation effects that make most unstable, and leave only a few orbital inclinations possible for indefinite frozen orbits, useful for long-term stays in LLO. [88] At the insistence of NASA Administrator Webb, North American removed Harrison Storms as command module program manager. The third stage burns a small portion of its fuel to achieve orbit. Third landing attempt aborted in transit to the Moon, due to SM failure. "[3] Silverstein chose the name at home one evening, early in 1960, because he felt "Apollo riding his chariot across the Sun was appropriate to the grand scale of the proposed program. A new digitally remastered version of the best available broadcast television footage was released instead.[160]. [89] Webb also reassigned Apollo Spacecraft Program Office (ASPO) Manager Joseph Francis Shea, replacing him with George Low. Schmitt. Dubbed Skylab, it was assembled on the ground rather than in space, and launched in 1973 using the two lower stages of a Saturn V. It was equipped with an Apollo Telescope Mount. [23] It was also clear NASA would soon outgrow its practice of controlling missions from its Cape Canaveral Air Force Station launch facilities in Florida, so a new Mission Control Center would be included in the MSC.[24]. Debus was named the LOC's first Director. But two days out, a liquid oxygen tank exploded, disabling the service module and forcing the crew to use the LM as a "lifeboat" to return to Earth. [141][142], In 2008, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency's SELENE probe observed evidence of the halo surrounding the Apollo 15 Lunar Module blast crater while orbiting above the lunar surface. It encountered a major setback in 1967 when an Apollo 1 cabin fire killed the entire crew during a prelaunch test. In September 1962, by which time two Project Mercury astronauts had orbited the Earth, Gilruth had moved his organization to rented space in Houston, and construction of the MSC facility was under way, Kennedy visited Rice to reiterate his challenge in a famous speech: But why, some say, the Moon? The primary computer in the LM was used, though the procedure had to be created on the spot. Based on the good performance of Apollo 6 and identification of satisfactory fixes to the Apollo 6 problems, NASA declared the Saturn V ready to fly crew, canceling a third uncrewed test. The descent stage impacted the moon and the … Shepard and Mitchell spent 33 hours and 31 minutes on the surface,[114] and completed two EVAs totalling 9 hours 24 minutes, which was a record for the longest EVA by a lunar crew at the time. The Apollo program's Command/Service Module (CSM) remained in a lunar parking orbit while the Lunar Module (LM) landed. The altitude at apoapsis (point farthest from the center of attraction) for a lunar orbit is known as apolune, apocynthion, or aposelene, while the periapsis (point closest to the center of attraction) is known as perilune, pericynthion, or periselene, from names or epithets of the moon goddess. That was the vital maneuver needed to reach the moon's surface, and Apollo 11's crew was prepared for any contingency. The combined CSM/LM would first enter an elliptical orbit, nominally 170 nautical miles (310 km; 200 mi) by 60 nautical miles (110 km; 69 mi), which was then changed to a circular parking orbit of about 60 nautical miles (110 km; 69 mi). The Senior Pilot would assume navigation duties, while the Pilot would function as a systems engineer. At a meeting of the US House Committee on Science and Astronautics one day after Gagarin's flight, many congressmen pledged their support for a crash program aimed at ensuring that America would catch up. It was the only component of the Apollo spacecraft to survive without major configuration changes as the program evolved from the early Apollo study designs. But not for long: inexorably, the subsatellite's orbit carried it back toward the Moon. All samples returned from the Moon are highly brecciated as a result of being subjected to multiple impact events. PFS-2 was placed in a particularly unstable orbital inclination of 11°, and lasted only 35 days in orbit before crashing into the lunar surface. (1973). Under Webb's reorganization, the directors of the Manned Spacecraft Center (Gilruth), Marshall Space Flight Center (von Braun), and the Launch Operations Center (Debus) reported to Mueller. Webb jumped in and defended von Braun, until Kennedy ended the squabble by stating that the matter was "still subject to final review". From NASA, these images illustrate the story behind "One small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind." In astronomy, lunar orbit (also known as a selenocentric orbit) is the orbit of an object around the Moon. Half of the 24 walked on the Moon's surface, though none of them returned to it after landing once. [80], On April 24, 1967, Mueller published an official Apollo mission numbering scheme, using sequential numbers for all flights, crewed or uncrewed. [110] The two unused Saturn Vs became museum exhibits at the John F. Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island, Florida, George C. Marshall Space Center in Huntsville, Alabama, Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans, Louisiana, and Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas. [8], Study of the mascons' effect on lunar spacecraft led to the discovery in 2001 of "frozen orbits" occurring at four orbital inclinations: 27°, 50°, 76°, and 86°, in which a spacecraft can stay in a low orbit indefinitely. First crewed flight of Saturn V; First crewed flight to Moon; CSM made 10 lunar orbits in 20 hours. The NASA Administrator in October, 2008, decided to award them the Distinguished Service Medals, by this time posthumously to Schirra and Eisele. The module was 24.6 feet (7.5 m) long and 12.83 feet (3.91 m) in diameter. [41], But even after NASA reached internal agreement, it was far from smooth sailing. After the second landing mission, the procedure was changed on Apollo 14 to save more of the LM fuel for its powered descent, by using the CSM's fuel to perform the DOI burn, and later raising its periapsis back to a circular orbit after the LM had made its landing. [58], In September 1962, NASA planned to launch four crewed CSM flights on the Saturn I from late 1965 through 1966, concurrent with Project Gemini. Skylab's last crew departed the station on February 8, 1974, and the station itself re-entered the atmosphere in 1979. Mission labelled as a "successful failure". Apollo 11 space mission Lunar Orbit Insertion. [143], Beginning in 2009, NASA's robotic Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, while orbiting 50 kilometers (31 mi) above the Moon, photographed the remnants of the Apollo program left on the lunar surface, and each site where crewed Apollo flights landed. The Block I crew positions were titled Command Pilot, Senior Pilot, and Pilot. [47] Apollo was grounded again, for the remainder of 1970 while the oxygen tank was redesigned and an extra one was added. The equipment deck at the base of the craft held the battery, transponder, flight programmer, inertial reference unit (IRU), Canopus star tracker, command decoder, … [4] The first orbit was an elliptical orbit, with an apolune of 1,008 nautical miles (1,867 km; 1,160 mi) and a perilune of 102.1 nautical miles (189.1 km; 117.5 mi). The Apollo program, also known as Project Apollo, was the third United States human spaceflight program carried out by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), which succeeded in landing the first humans on the Moon from 1969 to 1972. [5] Then the orbit was circularized at around 170 nautical miles (310 km; 200 mi) to obtain suitable imagery. These missions would also carry the Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV) increasing the exploration area and allowing televised liftoff of the LM. The Saturn V experienced pogo oscillation, a problem caused by non-steady engine combustion, which damaged fuel lines in the second and third stages. And they may well ask, why climb the highest mountain? They spent a total of 21 hours, 36 minutes on the surface, and spent 2 hours, 31 minutes outside the spacecraft,[103] walking on the surface, taking photographs, collecting material samples, and deploying automated scientific instruments, while continuously sending black-and-white television back to Earth. Powered descent At perilune, the descent engine fires again to start the descent. Throughout 1960 and 1961, Houbolt campaigned for the recognition of LOR as a viable and practical option. The ascent stage contained the crew cabin, ascent propellant, and a reaction control system. Of this amount, $20.2 billion ($124 billion adjusted) was spent on the design, development, and production of the Saturn family of launch vehicles, the Apollo spacecraft, space suits, scientific experiments, and mission operations. Orbit insertion took place on 24 December at 09:59:20 UT into an elliptical 310.6 km by 111.2 km lunar orbit. The program laid the foundation for NASA's subsequent human spaceflight capability, and funded construction of its Johnson Space Center and Kennedy Space Center. The initial LM model weighed approximately 33,300 pounds (15,100 kg), and allowed surface stays up to around 34 hours. Budget cuts forced the cancellation of three of these. A "plugs-out" test was planned for January, which would simulate a launch countdown on LC-34 with the spacecraft transferring from pad-supplied to internal power. At 15:41:37 UT a third-stage burn injected the Apollo spacecraft into translunar trajectory. In late 1961 and early 1962, members of the Manned Spacecraft Center began to come around to support LOR, including the newly hired deputy director of the Office of Manned Space Flight, Joseph Shea, who became a champion of LOR. [78], After an uncrewed LM test flight AS-206, a crew would fly the first Block II CSM and LM in a dual mission known as AS-207/208, or AS-278 (each spacecraft would be launched on a separate Saturn IB). McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart were promoted to the prime AS-258 crew, and Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham were reassigned as the Apollo 1 backup crew. Although at least three pads were planned, only two, designated A and B, were completed in October 1965. [49], North American Aviation won the contract to build the CSM, and also the second stage of the Saturn V launch vehicle for NASA. 24: Earth Parking Orbit. Crew members would also exclusively wear modified, fire-resistant A7L Block II space suits, and would be designated by the Block II titles, regardless of whether a LM was present on the flight or not. [112], Apollo 13's Fra Mauro mission was reassigned to Apollo 14, commanded in February 1971 by Mercury veteran Alan Shepard, with Stuart Roosa and Edgar Mitchell. Twenty-four of these left Earth's orbit and flew around the Moon between December 1968 and December 1972 (three of them twice). At its peak, the Apollo program employed 400,000 people and required the support of over 20,000 industrial firms and universities. Includes the first LOS portion of the flight. Numerous documentary films cover the Apollo program and the Space Race, including: The Apollo program, or certain missions, have been dramatized in Apollo 13 (1995), Apollo 11 (1996), From the Earth to the Moon (1998), The Dish (2000), Space Race (2005), Moonshot (2009), and First Man (2018). Using the Apollo 11 lunar lander's mass ratio of 22,667-pound (10,282 kg) descent stage to 10,042-pound (4,555 kg) ascent stage, scaled up to Nova's 163,000-pound (74,000 kg) payload. Crews on all development flights (except the Earth orbit CSM development flights) through the first two landings on Apollo 11 and Apollo 12, included at least two (sometimes three) Gemini veterans. [8] When Kennedy's newly appointed NASA Administrator James E. Webb requested a 30 percent budget increase for his agency, Kennedy supported an acceleration of NASA's large booster program but deferred a decision on the broader issue. Dr. Harrison Schmitt, a geologist, was the first NASA scientist astronaut to fly in space, and landed on the Moon on the last mission, Apollo 17. This was followed by five launches of boilerplate CSMs (designated AS-101 through AS-105) into orbit in 1964 and 1965. The parking orbit was "circularized" at 66 nautical miles (122 km; 76 mi) by 54 nautical miles (100 km; 62 mi), which was expected to become the nominal circular 60 nautical miles (110 km; 69 mi) when the LM made its return rendezvous with the CSM. He subsequently released 'NASSP COSTAM' and a derivative which provided basic support for the Virtual AGC software. Second crewed flight of Saturn V; First crewed flight of CSM and LM in Earth orbit; demonstrated portable life support system to be used on the lunar surface. [51], Before the Apollo program began, Wernher von Braun and his team of rocket engineers had started work on plans for very large launch vehicles, the Saturn series, and the even larger Nova series. That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind. Both lunar orbit insertion burns (L01), using the spacecraft's 20,50G-pound-thrust service propulsion system, will be made when Apollo ii is behind the Moon and out … [139], The S-IVB orbital workshop was the only one of these plans to make it off the drawing board. Source: Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference (Orloff 2004)[122], The Apollo program returned over 382 kg (842 lb) of lunar rocks and soil to the Lunar Receiving Laboratory in Houston. Two S-II engines shut down prematurely, but the remaining engines were able to compensate. The final choice of lunar orbit rendezvous changed the CSM's role to the translunar ferry used to transport the crew, along with a new spacecraft, the Lunar Excursion Module (LEM, later shortened to LM (Lunar Module) but still pronounced /ˈlɛm/) which would take two individuals to the lunar surface and return them to the CSM. ... 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